Female Circumcision in
Islam
A common phenomenon which has been regretfully
associated almost exclusively with Islam is the various forms of female genital
cutting, or FGC[1].
Although many of those who are involved in this act attribute to the religion
of Islam, the majority of the forms of FGC present in the world today which are
acts truly abominable, acts of which the religion of Islam is innocent.
In no way does Islam condone these actions, and they should be looked at
something purely culture and not Islamic. Amnesty International asserts,
“FGC [female genital cutting] predates Islam and is not practiced by the
majority of Muslims, but has acquired a religious dimension.” [2]
The Female Genital Cutting Education and Networking Project states,
“...it is not an Islamic practice. FGC is a cross-cultural and
cross-religious ritual. In Africa and the Middle East, it is performed by
Muslims, Coptic Christians, members of various indigenous groups, Protestants,
and Catholics, to name a few.” [3]
One sect of Jews, the Falashas, also circumcise both sexes. [4]
We will first look into the various types of FGC, and then examine why
various cultures implemented these techniques upon their female constituencies.
Types of Female Genital Cutting
Female genital cutting is “term used to refer to any
practice which includes the removal or the alteration of the female genitalia.”
[5]
There are three basic types of FGC[6]:
Type I: This
is the mildest form of FGC, which includes removing or splitting the prepuce
(foreskin or ‘hood’) which covers the clitoris of females, thus exposing the
glans. This may be couple with partial or total excision of the
clitoris. This is known as clitoridotomy (slang:
hoodectomy). According to the United Nations Population Fund, this form
is comparable to male circumcision. [7]
This
is sometimes also called “sunna circumcision” due to the fact that it is this
type which is performed commonly by those Muslims who believe it to be
legislated in Islam.
Type II: In
this type, known as clitoridectomy, the clitoris and labia minora is partially
or totally removed.
Type III:
This is one of the most extreme forms of FGC, involving the total excision of
the clitoris, both the labia minora and majora, and the joining of the two
sides of the vulva across the vagina, sewn with thread or secured with other
items, until it heals joining together. Only a small, pencil-size hole is
left to allow passage of menstrual blood and urine. This is known as
infibulation or Pharaonic Circumcision, in reference to its origins.
Type IV:
This type is inclusive of all other forms of genital cutting, such as: pricking,
piercing or incision of the clitoris and/or labia; stretching of the clitoris
and/or labia; cauterization by burning of the clitoris and surrounding
tissue; introcision, scraping (angurya cuts) or cutting (gishri
cuts) of the vagina or surrounding tissue; and introduction of corrosive
substances or herbs into the vagina.
Geography
Various forms of FGC is practiced throughout the
world, but it is most common in sub-Saharan Africa, in a band stretching East
from Senegal to Somalia, as shown on the map. It also exists in the
Middle East, North and South America, Indonesia and Malaysia. Type III is
almost exclusive to Somalia, Sudan and southern Egypt, along with some areas in
Mali and Nigeria.
We find that in some societies, such as Somalia,
Eritrea , and Ethiopia, almost all women undergo type III of FGC. Reasons
range from regarding the woman as unclean if the clitoris is not completely
removed, to ensuring that women remain chaste until marriage. This is
practice is an age old custom in these societies, and members fear to leave it
out of fear of chastisement. Women may not be able to get married, or
even be accused of committing fornication. Families may also loose their
honor if this tradition is not kept with.
FGC was also a common practice in
North America, and specifically in the U.S., type I, II and III was common
until the 1950’s in order to control female sexuality. Clitoridectomy was
performed for various reasons. One of the most common reasons was to
reduce masturbation. In England, Isaac Baker Brown published a book about
his successes in treating female masturbation with clitoridectomy. He
also claimed it to cure obscure nervous disorders such as hysteria and
epilepsy. [8]
Many more solutions were offered for masturbation, such as chastity
belts, first used in medieval times to ensure that wives remain chaste while
their husbands were away. In order to prevent masturbation in boys, spiked
rings even more drastic measures were employed, such as cauterization and even
castration. [9]
In one of the most classic of
pediatric textbooks, Diseases of Infancy and Childhood, published 11
times from 1897 to 1940, the author L.E. Holt advocated cauterization of the
clitoris as well as blistering the vulva as a preventive measures for
masturbation. Masturbation was seen as the reason of many ills, such as
neuroticism, disobedience, and disrespect of parents. [10]
In the U.S. an organization known as the Orificial
Surgery Society was formed, publishing journals mentioning the various benefits
of clitoridectomy, even for things as trivial as headaches.
There were also many hygienic benefits that were
thought to be produced by clitoridotomy. C.F. McDonald states in a 1958 paper entitled Circumcision
of the Female[11]: “If the male needs
circumcision for cleanliness and hygiene, why not the female? I have operated
on perhaps 40 patients who needed this attention.” The author states that it
remedies “irritation, scratching, irritability, masturbation, frequency and
urgency,” and smegmaliths
causing “dyspareunia and frigidity.”
Until recently the clitoris was seen as un unclean
thing. Even Sigmund Freud, one of the founders of modern psychology,
stated in one of his books Sexuality and the Psychology of Love, the
“elimination of clitoral sexuality is a necessary precondition for the
development of femininity.”
Today in the west, many adults choose to undergo
clitoridotomy, as some doctors[12]
and others[13]
advocate
clitoridotomy, claiming that it increases
sexual pleasure. They state that over-sized clitoral
hood may impede in the stimulation of the clitoris.
Some websites, such as Circlist, BMEzine, and geocities, even
have testimonials of people who underwent the process, as well as medical
reports promoting the practice. They show that the majority of women
reported increased sexual pleasure after the procedure (87.5% in Rathmann’s
1959 study[14]
and 75% in Knowles’).
A Difference of Opinion
Although circumcision of males is an act regarded as
commendable in Islam, the scholars have differed in regards to females.
Some scholars have regarded the act as commendable, while others regard it as
merely permissible. Lately, some have even stated its impermissibility.
All these opinions are based upon a number of Prophetic narrations
(hadeeths) relating to this subject.
The scholars of Islam who state that circumcision is a
commendable act mainly do so due to a hadeeth in which the Prophet, may the
mercy and blessings of God be upon him, said:
“Circumcision is Sunnah for men and an honorable thing
for women.” (Musnad Ahmad)
From this narration, the scholars of Islam understand
the encouragement of the Prophet to circumcise both men and women to be a
commendable act in the religion, based about known principles of Islamic
Jurisprudence.
Those who regard it as merely being something
permissible base their opinion on an additional narration, known as the narration
of Umm Atiyyah, in which the Prophet came to know of a circumcision being
performed upon a female child. He related instruction to the woman
performing it saying:
“Trim, but do not cut into it, for this is brighter
for the face (of the girl) and more favorable with the husband.” (Mu`jam
al-Tabarânî al-Awsat)
From this hadeeth, the scholars deduce the
permissibility of the circumcision of females, as the Prophet did not clearly
forbid it. They also deduce, however, the impermissibility of going to
extremes in doing so, based upon his prohibition of “cutting into it”.
When one looks into the statements of the scholars of
hadeeth, however, they will find that quite a number of the most prominent of
them, such as Ibn Hajar, al-Bukhari, Abu Dawud, al-Bayhaqi, ibn-ul-Mundthir,
ash-Shawkani, state that they are weak and cannot be relied upon. Ibn
ul-Mundthir said:
“There is no report about circumcision that can be
relied upon, and no chain of transmission that can be followed.” [15]
It is known amongst the scholars of Islam that if a hadeeth is
found to be weak and unreliable, it is impermissible that it be used as
evidence to establish a ruling in Islam, as all legal rulings in the religion
must be verified with authentic, unambiguous proofs
“Sunnah” Circumcision
What one can see is that Type I FGC, sometimes called
“Sunnah” circumcision, does have some basis in the religion of Islam, however
weak this basis may be. It is key to note, however, that it is only this
first type which some of the scholars regarded as permissible or commendable,
which is the clipping of the prepuce until the glans becomes visible, or less.
This procedure is harmless and has no detrimental effects upon women, and
is similar to the circumcision of men, as mentioned previously. Rather, some
have even argued that there are some benefits to this procedure, as mentioned
earlier, such as increase of sexual pleasure, prevention of unpleasant odors
which result from foul secretions beneath the prepuce, and reduction of the
incidence of urinary tract infections and infections affecting the reproductive
system. [16]
As for the other types of FGC, there is no basis for
this practice in Islam, rather it is strictly prohibited, as in the hadeeth
which implies its permissibility is a prohibition from going to extremes. Also,
Islamic law protects women’s right to sexual enjoyment, demonstrated by the
fact that a woman has the right to divorce on the grounds that her husband does
not provide sexual satisfaction. As for those Muslims in certain parts of
the world which do practice this form of female genital mutilation, as they
grow in their understanding of Islam, they will start to put aside these
abominable actions. A clear example of this is that that one of the
various groups in Kenya who do not practice FGM are the Muslims, although it is
a country whose people are known to practice it,.
We must emphasize, however, that the correct stance is
that there is no reliable text which directly encourages any form of
circumcision, and thus the matter is left to other general texts which prohibit
infliction of harm and those which encourage all things healthy and
beneficial. One fundamental of Islamic jurisprudence is that what is not
specifically prohibited is allowed, but still subject to other indirect texts.
This makes for a great deal of tolerance in religion, but also allows it to
cope with new issues brought by time. If it is found that circumcision is
medically beneficial to females or to society, then it would be at the most
something encouraged by Islam, as all things beneficial to life are regarded as
commendable in religion. But if it is found, on the other hand, that
circumcision is harmful, then it would definitely be regarded as something
forbidden in Islam, as Dr. Abd al-Rahmân b. Hasan al-Nafisah, editor of the Contemporary
Jurisprudence Research Journal based in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia stated in his
article entitles Female Circumcision & Islam: “In Islamic Law,
preservation of the person – the life and bodily soundness of the person – is a
legal necessity. Anything that compromises this legal necessity by
bringing harm to the person is unlawful.” [17]
[1] Some opponents of this practice use the
term Female Genital Mutilation, or FGM, but the term FGC is being used more
commonly these days in order to avoid stirring social sensitivities.
International.. (http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGACT770061997?open&of=ENG-370)
Marianne Sarkis.
[6] Female Genital Mutilation: Report of a WHO
Technical Working Group, Geneva, 17-19 July 1995.” World Health Organization:
Geneva. 1996.
[7] Frequently Asked Questions on Female
Genital Mutilation/Cutting (http://www.unfpa.org/gender/practices2.htm#4).
“Circumcision of the Female.
Sexual Dysfunction”.
Circumcision: Indications and a New
Technique.”
#2140.
Banaat Khaalid. 2003.
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